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Economical importance of bryophytes

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ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF BRYOPHYTES Mosses and Bryophytes are the first organiasms to colonise rocks. They colonise rock by acidic secretion. This acidic secretion is due to the death of mosses. When the rock is decomposed it helps in soil formation. Therefore New soils are formed. The soil act as binders.  It prevent soil erosion. The water retention capacity of the soil is high ie, water holding capacity of the soil is high.  This reduces surface water run-off which prevent soil erosion. Bryophyte helps in the recycling of nutrients. ECONOMICAL IMPORTANCE OF BRYOPHYTES. 1) SPHAGNUM Sphagnum has high absorptive power with antiseptic property. This can be used to replace cotton in bandages. 2) MERCHANTIA   Mercahntia cures pulmonary tuberculosisand affliction (pain) in liver. Antibiotic substances are also extracted from bryophytes. it also acts as antiseptic, and as preservative POLYTRICHUM Polytrichum dissolove stone in kidney and in gall bladder. 3) IN RESEARCH It is used in the fie
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Structure of enzymes, notes

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Structure of enzymes    The enzymes May be  designed or found in primary structure of protein ( only peptide bonds) , secondary structure of protein ( peptide+ hydrogen bonds) and tertiary structure of protein ( globular structure , peptide+ hydrogen+ other types of bonds) . Most enzymes are stable in tertiary structure.the protein part of the enzymes contain the active sites  and here catalytic activities occurred where the substrate binds . - enzymes are composed of minimum 120 amino acids. - about 99 % of enzymes are composed of protein.and 1% is other things.      A complete enzyme is called holoenzyme. Which is formed when cofactors or cofactor and allosteric enzymes or enzyme (binds at the regulatory sites   which regulates the process and can enhance or reduce the rate of reactions.) binds to the protein part ( apoenzyme) . All the best.....
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Reserve food and pigmentation of algae notes

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PIGMENT SYSTEM       Pigments are housed in chloroplasts. The basic structure of the photosynthetic apparatus comprises a series of flattened, membranous vesicles called the thylakoids which are within a matrix called the stroma. It is the thylakoids that contain the chlorophyll, and they are the sites of the photochemical reactions. Thylakoids can be free from one another or they can be stacked, depending upon the algal division. A pyrenoid with associated storage products may be present in a chloroplast.        In algae four types of pigments are found ie   1.chlorophyll    2.carotene    3.xanthophyll    4. Phycobilins Within the algae there are 5 types of chlorophyll a, b, c (c1 and c2) and d and e. . Chlorophyll a is found in all photosynthetic algae,so it is called universal pigment. whereas chlorophyll b is confined to Euglenophyta and Chlorophyta. Chlorophyll c is found in Dinophyta, Cryptophyta, Rhaphidophyta, Bacillariophyta, Chrysophyta, Xanthophyta, Phaeophyta an
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General characteristics of algae

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General characteristics Algae are the important plants as primary producers in an aquatic system.  - chlorophyll containing, photoautotropic thalloid.  - mostly aquatic( both fresh and marine) and may have other habitat like moist stones, soils, wood and association with other animals like lichen.  -range from microscopic single celled to large seaweed.  -many species as single cell and other as multicellular.  - may be eukaryote or prokaryote  - motile or non motile.  - pigments and inclusion bodies are present.  -chloroplast may be 1,2 or many per cell of different shape.  - A descrete nucleus is present.  - Reproduction may be by sexual, asexual or by Vegetatively. Sex organs are generally one cellad without any jacket.  - No embryo forms after gamete fusion.  - Show alternation of generation.  😄😄😄😄😄😄. .... 
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what is Haplodiplontic life cycle ( triphasic)

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Triphasic life cycle.       In triphasic life cycle there is a succession of there generation ie may be two haploid generations and one diploid generation or one haploid generation with two diploid generations.it is of following types ie ,   I.Haplobiontic type ( 2 haploid + 1 diploid)         In some rhodophyceae like Batrachospermum two well developed haploid phase are present and the diploid phase is represented by only zygote.                 The haploid plant body bears sex organs ( spermatogonia, carpogonia ) haploid gametes ( sperm and egg)  are formed in these sex organs,a diploid zygote is formed by the fusion of two gametes.the nucleus of the zygote divides meiotically to form four haploid carpogonia ,  they later develop into carposporophyte  generation ( a haploid generation) . the carposporophyte bears carpospores , after liberation carpospores are germinate into heterogeneous chantransia stage ( resting stage) , after this stage a new gametophytic
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Classification of enzymes ( on the basis of composition)

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Enzyme classification.   I. Simple enzymes       The enzymes are broadly classified into two groups ie.,  ii. Conjugated or holoenzymes ( holo - complete)  - simple enzymes are composed of only amino acids eg., Pepsin etc. - Holoenzymes - the enzyme is composed of protein part and cofactor. - the protein part is called apoenzyme   which determines the structure and specificity of the enzymes.    -  Cofactor   are non protein part which have catalytic activities of the enzymes.it is further divided into two types ie.,   I. Organic  ii. Inorganic - the organic compounds are further divided into two groups ie  a. Prosthetic group- which rudely bound to the enzyme. Ex ., Fe- porphyrin . b. Coenzymes are generally vitamins . They losely bound to the apoenzyme. - inorganic are metal activators , they are loosely bound to the apoenzyme.eg.,Fe,Mg,Zn ,K etc
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what isHaplodiplontic life cycle ( biphasic) .

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Haplodiplontic life cycle    The life cycle of an organisms which both gametophytic and sporophytic generation found for long time is called haplodiplontic life cycle.    It's further divided into two types ie.,   a. Biphasic   b. Triphasic  Biphasic life cycle ( both phase found)      The life cycle in which , there is a succession of two generation ie gametophytic generation and generation. It's of following types. I. Isomorphic type      In this type of life cycle,there is an altercation of generation in which both phase are externally similar, and can be distinguished by counting the chromosome number.          the haploid plant produce haploid gametes  which are fused to form diploid zygote which directly terminate into a diploid plant.the diploid sex organs of the diploid plant produce diploid gametes ie spore which undergoes reductional division to produce haploid gametes or haploid zoospores which directly grow into haploid plant .the haploid plant produce h
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what is haplontic and diplobiontic life cycle , notes

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Life cycle of algae    The growth and development of alga passes through a number of distinct morphological and cytological changes or stages. the sequence of these orderly changes is said to be life cycle or like history of algae.                  Ie., It's from one zygote generation to the next orr one gametophytic generation to the next is said to be life cycle. Haplontic life cycle.      The plant body is haploid bears haploid gametes in the gametagoniun . the gametes are fused and form a diploid zygote , which is only the diploid stage or phage during their life cycle. Later the zygote nucleus divides meiotically and form four haploid meiospore . Each meiospore develops into new individuals .this there is alternation of the haploid gamete with diploid zygote.     Here gametophytic generation is dominant over sporophytic generation.   Found in motile unicellular form ex., Chlymadomonas, Oedogonium,Volvox ,Chara etc. Diplontic life cycle.       Diploid pl
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what are the Properties of enzymes ,notes

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Properties of enzyme.        I. Required in small amount. ii. Not consumed during the chemical reactions. iii. Can be repeatedly used in an individual reactions. iv. They don't disturb the equilibrium of the chemical reactions rather they maintain the equilibrium ,they accelerate the forward and backward reactions. v.most enzymes are protein( about 90% enzyme are protein) . vi . they're highly specific. vii.they are powerful catalyst. viii. They transform energy .                Ex., In photosynthesis light energy converted into bond energy. Enzymes later used this bond energy as  ATP  in various metabolic processes.ie., muscle cells convert this bond energy into mechanical energy. All the best.....
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History of enzyme discovery

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Enzyme    Enzyme means leavened ( in Greek  en- in ,zyme- leaven) .it was originally meant for the formation in east, which was used for the production of ethanol from sugar, but it was now used for all the biological catalyst so, enzymes are the catalyst of biological system. The first enzyme discovered- diastage Discovered in 1833  by Anselme Payen and Jean Francois at Sugar factory. History    In mid in nineteenth  century Louis Pasteur concluded that the conversation of sugar into alcohol by yeast cell was catalized by ferments . He however, was of the opinion that ferments were functional only in the living cells.in the year 1897 ,E Buchner observed that yeast extract could catalized formentation , this discovery completely discarded the Louis Pasteur theory and demonstrated that fermentation principles could be present outside the cell.F.W Kuhne called these ferments as enzyme.    Another important breakthrough came from James Summer's isolation and crystallization of the ure
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mycology

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Nutrition . Essential requirement for growth of fungi are  carbon  oxygen  hydrogen  nitrogen  phosphorus  magnesium  sodium  manganese  copper  molybdenum  ferrous  These above are reffered as macronutrients. Mode of nutrition. 1)Saprophytic They feed on dead and decaying  organic matter. ie,rotten vegetable, moist bread. Example- Rhizopus, penicillium, agaricus. 2) Parasitic fungi. They grows on tissues of host animal. these host animal are living in nature.  Ectoparasite- mycellia outside. Endoparasites- mycelia embedded in tissue. Obligate parasites They live on living cells  ex - puccinnia, melanospores. Facultative parasite  ~live in inactive form ~opportunistic in nature  If get a chance, it enter into host and make disease . Ex - mycellium . Localised fungi. Ex - Puccinnia , cause disease in wheat. Systemic fungus. Ex - Vistilage , cause smut disease. 3 ) Symbiotic fungi. Ex- lichens Fungi and algae. Fungi give nutrients and water ( raw material) Algae do photosynthesis of the
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archegoiate

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Hepatocospida   it names fall apart as it looks like hepatic cell  Hepatic cells are present in liver. example :- liverworts Example of liverworts are riccia and merchantia.                                  Riccia                          Merchantia Hepatocospida is further divided into four orders 1) merchantiales Ex- riccia and merchantia 2) sphaerocarpales  Ex- sphaerocarpus 3) calobryales Ex- calobryum 4) jungermanniales Ex- pellia Merchantiales Terrestrial growing plants. But grows on shady places, damp soil, moist area and bank of stream. Internal structure of thallus a)Ventral side. - Thallus look like boat shaped. - They are same gametophytic plant.  ie, No difference of sex organ (male/female) Upper epidermal, lower epidermal are present and in between them chloroplast containing cells are found. ~ Air chamber is present, also called air spore.  ~ This helps in exchange of gases. (Co2 and O2) ~ Scales are present. Dorsal side. Gemma cups are present.              
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Bryophytes introduction

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BRYOPHYTES -ARE CALLED AMPHIBIANS OF PLANT KINGDOM -Have jacketed sex organ -Rhizoids are present  -non vascular in nature -Leafy structure develop in higher group -have differentiated body design   - no specialised tissue for conduction of water. - example  funeraria and merchantia ADOPTATION TO LAND HABITAT 1) DEVELOPMENT OF ORGAN FOR        ATTACHMENT AND ABSORPTION OF WATER   Bryophytes don't grows on water as like algae. They grows on land. Hence, Rhizoids develop. Rhizoids function as absorbing and attaching organ. (Absorb nutrients, remain attached to the plant) 2) protection against desiccation   Thick compact multicellular thallus covers with epidermis   1)As they are in compact form, the total surface area of bryophytes reduces proportionately as per the volume. Their surface area decreases, hence transpiration also decreases/reduced. 2) epidermis protect from drying effect of air reduces effect of desiccation. Desiccation- leaf dries up.                        Leaf get
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Mycology

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Fungi  definition. Fungi is a living thing. They are not plants, animals or bacteria. They have their own unique kingdom. Fungi have complex eukaryotic cells. They lack chlorophyll,  hence fungi feeds on organic matter and carbon source for energy. They have ability to act/function independently. Fun fact. There are about 1.5 million (15 Lacs) species of fungi believed to be on earth. Scientists have discovered 1 lac different species of fungi. True fungi Kingdom fungi includes several phyla, here are called true fungi. Scientists consider these four phyla as true fungi. 1) chytidiomycota 2) zygomycota 3) glomeromycota 4) dikarya True fungi are also called ascomycota. It is a taxonomic division within the kingdom fungi. Fungi which provides spores in microscopic sporangium called ascus. True fungi are generally  multicellular Heterotrophic (no photosynthesis) General characteristics of fungi Algae belongs to eukarya domain. (Eukaryotic in nature) They don't have chlorophyll. Theref
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what is chromosome , number, shape and size, notes

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Chromosomes      E. Strasbourger in 1875 discovered threadlike structures which appeared during cell division.these were called chromosomes ( chroma- colour) due to their affiliaty for basic dyes.in all higher organisms ( eukaryota) , the well organised nucleus contains a number of chromosomes of definite shape and size.these are invisible in the nucleus but are visible during cell division,in both mitosis and meiosis. At leptotene stage , chromosomes ( the regions of chromatin that have been compacted through localised contraction) are appeared as bead like nodules known as chronometer.size of the chromomeres and that of the interchromeric regions are not constant, so every leptotene has its own particular pattern.the DNA is believed to be present in the interchromeric regions. A diploid nucleus has two chromomeres of each type, are known as homologous chromosomes which comes in contact at zygotene and pair lengthwise throughout their length Number       Chromo
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what is NUCLEUS , SIGNIFICANC, NUMBER, SHAPE AND SIZE , notes...

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Significance of nucleus     Robert Brown for the first time in 1883 discovered a prominent body with in the cell and termed it nucleus ( from the Greek word karyon) . A German botanist J.Hammerling , demonstrated in 1934 that the nucleus determine the characters of the cell and ultimately the characters of the individual.he conducted a certain experiment using two species of alga ,Acetabularia. the two species are differ in shape and their caps. The Nucleus of the two species are situated in the rhizoid at the bottom of the stalk.if the caps are cut off,it will develop again and again and it's shape are that of the original type. However,after removing the caps the stalk of two species grafted with the rhizoids of the another species.then he observed that the caps were develope according to the nucleus.when both of the nucleus were grafted with the single stalk then the cap develoed intermediate type.this experiment demonstrated for the first time that characters of an individual a
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what is endosymbiosis theory of eukaryotic cell origin , notes

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Origin of eukaryotic cell     We know that the eukaryotic cell has  a well developed nucleus and cell organelles. Therefore, a natural question is how the eukaryotic cell originated from a prokaryotic cell, or independently. A number of theories are available to explain the origin of eukaryotic cell. However, the most important of among these theories is endosymbiosis theory. Other theories like micromutation theory and hydrogen hypothesis are also important.  Endosymbiosis theory       A popular hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic cell ( including cell organelles ie., mitochondria a and chloroplast) is endosymbiosis theory, according to which the origin of eukaryotic cell and it's organelles describe in following stetments ie.,  1 large prokaryotic cell ( capable of engulfing other small prokaryotic cell) engulfed an aerobic bacteria or photosynthetic bacteria( cyanobacteria)  2.the engulfed bacteria, instead of digested remain as a symbiont, benefiting the host ce
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There domain classification of organisms ( archaea, bacteria and eukarya) , notes

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       Till recently, in living organisms two types of classification were recognized, prokaryotic cell with no organised nucleus and eukaryotic cell having organised nucleus and an nuclear envelope. Bacteria and blue green algae were included in prokaryotic cell and higher organisers were included in eukaryotic cell. However, another group of prokaryotic cells archaea were discovered in 1977 , so that the prokaryotic cells could be divided into Archaebacteria and eubacteria. It was shown that the group archna is distinct from bacteria and eukaryotes. As a result the living organisms now divided into three domains ie., bacteria, archaea and eukarya.       Such a classification in three domains has been proved in the recent year 1996 , when the genome of an archaeon, namely Methanococcus jannaschii( during the expedition to deep sea  M. Jannaschii was discovered in 1982 from a hot spot beneath the pacific ocean and was found to be methane producing organisms) . It's nucletide sequen
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Discovery of cell and cell theory ( cell is the structural and functional unit of life)

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Disvovery of cell All animals and plants consist of certain structural units. Such a concept was originally put forward by Aristotle (384-322 B. C) . For these units, a term cell( in Gr., kytos- cell, cella_ hollow space) was used by Robert Hooke in 1665,he observed these for the first time in a piece of cork under a primitive microscope which was a dead cell so, that's cytoplasmic contents were lost and the cell wall only remain so, it was look like hollow space( ie., like rooms of a house separated by the walls) so, he called them cell. Later, cells in the form of cavities with cellulose walls were observed in different plants by Grew and Malpighi. In 1674,Leeuweenhoek also first observed the living cells and some organization within these cells.  Cell theory    The structural unit called cell, is  now known as the unit of life and the concept that the cell is basic unit of life is known as cell theory. At the Beck of 19th century several workers including H. J Dutroc
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Factors determine Cell shape, size and number, notes

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1. Cell shape      There is a great amount of variability in cells with respect to cell shape. Some cells are like amoeba and leukocytes change their shape frequently. Other cells have a typical shape. Some bacteria are rods, spirals, and even comas. Some algae like diatoms and desmids have different shapes.         In multicellular organisms the cell is shape is partly controlled by the pressure the cell exert against each other so that when isolated in a liquid these cells may become spherical according to the law of surface tension. In this way, leukocytes are spherical in  circulating blood, but may become irregular in shape in other conditions. Cell shape also depends upon the functions as they has to perform. For instance, cell like glandular hairs on a leaf, the guard cell on stomata, and root hair cells have their special shapes. Stability to the cell shape is provided by the association of the cytoskeleton with the inner surface of plasma membrane Of the cell. 
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Class Chlorophyceae general characters and classification, notes

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Chlorophyceae( Green algae)     The group of green algae represented by 425 genera and 6500 spe species ( Bold i 1967) . Fritsch considered to include the group of green algae in the class chlorophyceae. While Smith, Bold etc raised to the rank of division chlorophyta. They are the biggest class of algae.    In the classification of these algae numerous features are taken into consideration, such as nutritional requirements, morphological and structural features, Serological reactions, ultrastructure and composition of cell wall etc.            They are green due to the predominantly pigments chl a, and b found in abundance, also other pigments are present ie. alpha, beta carotene an xanthophyll but phycobillins are absent. They are found in almost every where,.most are fresh water (about 90%) also some are marine in habits. The fresh water maybe pools, lakes, and ponds etc. Some are found in both Mari as well as fresh water ie. Volvocales, Cladophorales etc. So
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Introduction and contributions of scientists of algae

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          Introduction            Scientists and History                                            INTRODUCTION            Algae are the diverse group of relatively simple, chlorophyll containing, photoautotropic and oxygen evolving thalloid organism.          Where alga-seaweed and  logy -study So, study of algae is algology and also phycology.  Where phycos- seaseed  from latin word.  HISTORY The term algae was first used by Carolous linnaus in 1753. - FE Fritsch (1935) divideed algae into 11 classes in his book 'structure and reproduction of algae' mainly on the basks of pigmentation, thallus structure and mode of reproduction as well as life cycle. So he is know as father of algae.  - MOP(Mandayam Osuri Parthasarathy) Lyengar was a indian botanidt and phycologist who researching the structure, cytology, reproduction and taxonomy of algae. So he is the father of lndian algology.  - Lamouroux and willium henry harvey created significant groups with in algae.  - h
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Basics of biological classification of living world part 2

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Taxon - This word signifies a taxonomic group of any rank ( category) which represent the real biological organism include in the category like     Mays( species) , roses( genus ) , grasses ( family) , conifers ( order) , dicots( class) seed plant( division) etc.      Ex, Zeamays is a taxon while species mays is a category.       Category represents an abstract term, but taxon represents the real biological organism.  Taxonomic hierarchy    The main aim of taxonomical study is to assigned organisms in an appropriate place in a systematic frame work of classification, it also the frame work in which taxonomic groups are arranged in definite order from higher to lawyer categories. It also called Linnaean hierarchy. Linnaeus first used only five categories such as class, order, genus, species and variety. The variety was discarded and three are added so that now there are seven obligate categories ie  1. Kingdom 2.division ( for plants) or phylum 3.class 4.order 5.family 6.ge
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Carl Worse classification of prokaryotes, notes

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Carl woese system      A detailed study of nucleotide sequence of t- RNA in the ribosomes of different types of cells reveled the two different type of prokaryotes Thus we have three kinds of cell organization in pthe microorganisms ie two prokaryotic and Eukaryotic. The rank of three domain recognised by worse are Eubacteria, Archaebacteria and eukarya.  The Eubacteria include prokaryotes which have peptidoglycan in their cell wall, eg., gram positive and negative bacteria, my oplasmas.  The archaebacteria are with out peptidoglycan in their cell wall. They often live in extremely environment and show un usually metabolic activities. The domain archara divided into three kingdom ie mithanogenes, extreme halophiles and thermoacidophiles.     Methanogenes are strictly anaerobes, produce methane from CO2 and H.     The extreme halophiles are occur in highly saline environments such as salt lakes, surface of salt preserve food etc. These are obligate anaerobes.      Thermoacid
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Cryptogams and it's classification

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Cryptogams- Introduction      The term cryptogams came from Greek word kryptos( hidden) and gamos ( marriage) . It was coined by the 19th century botanist for the plants in which sexual reproduction is hidden or not seen. The seed plants have been accordingly termed phanerogams, from the Greek words phaneros( visible). Such names as thallophytes, lower plants and spore plants are also assigned to the cryptogams. These make up around 84% of the world's botanical diversity. Algae, lichen, Mosses, and ferns are well known cryptogams. The group also includes non photosynthetic organisms traditionally classified as plants, such as Fungi and bacteria.  Ancient system of classification of cryptogams.     Carolus Linnaeus (1701-1778) recognized cryptogams as a bro with in plant kingdom. Hre divided plants into 25 classes and cryptogamia is one of them. It was further divided into 4 orders ie 1.algae( algae, lichens, and thallose bryophytes)  2.musci( mosses and leafs liverworts
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MORPHOLOGY OF A TYPICAL ANGIOSPERMIC PLANT

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MORPHOLOGY OF A TYPICAL ANGIOSPERMIC PLANT. Plant body of an angiospermic plant consists of MAIN AXIS. Main axis 1) it may be branched  or unbranched . 2) it is differentiated into TWO parts.                    I)  root system                           Underground part.                          Example : roots.                   II)  shoot system                           Aerial part. (above ground)                          Examples;                           1) stem                           2) leaves                           3) buds                           4) flower 🌺                           5) fruit                           6) seeds Root   It is the non green underground part of the plant. Function. 1) anchors the plant, penetrate soil. 2) absorbs water and minerals ion. 3) crucial to plant nutrition. Types of roots. 1) primary root. I) develops directly from radicle. 2) secondary root. I) when primary root bears many lateral branches, is called secondary root. II
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